RUSSIAN GLOSSARY OF SEA ICE TERMINOLOGY
Glossary Terms: A-D, E-H, I, J-R, S-Z
INTRODUCTION
PREFACE TO THE 1994 RUSSIAN EDITION
Any field of science, and ice science is no exception, has its own terminology, i.e., a set of terms, words and expressions, which continuously develops and becomes more perfect. This development is determined by specific sources of terms and a number of other factors, such as the growing scope of scientific research, the integration of different fields of science, and international co-operation.
It is well known that the first system for sea ice classification was developed in the USSR in 1921 – 1928 and that a new edition of this system was approved in 1938. After World War II, the use of new methods for monitoring and research (ice surveys, aerial photography of ice) catalyzed a rapid increase in both new data and knowledge concerning sea ice behavior and processes. This resulted in the creation of new terms and concepts related to ice and made it necessary to review existing terminology because "the old classification system and terminology could not meet the new requirements" [23].
With a view toward developing new terminology, the Interdepartmental Ice Committee was established in 1952. In 1954, "Classification and Terminology of Ice Existing in the Sea" was approved and submitted for review to the Oceanographic Committee of the USSR Academy of Sciences. The Classification was also discussed and approved at scientific council sessions of the Arctic and Antarctic Research Institute (AARI) and the State Oceanographic Institute (SOI).
Late in the 60s, the World Meteorological Organization (WMO) undertook the task of reconciling sets of terms and classification systems of ice as well as the sets of symbols and methods for representing ice related information that existed in different countries. As a result, in 1967, the Interdepartmental Committee for Sea Ice was established in the USSR and studied various proposals and submitted them to WMO. In 1968, the Interdepartmental Committee put forth a draft Soviet ice terminology glossary which, for unknown reasons, was called "International Ice Nomenclature". The document not only contained lists of terms used in ice science, as the word "nomenclature" would imply, but in fact was a complete terminology dictionary with its own terminology and classification system. The final version of "International Nomenclature" was published in the USSR in 1974 and was implemented in March 1974 by the Hydrometeorological Service (currently Rosgidromet) as well as by other agencies and organizations of the USSR.
In accordance with the resolution of the Council of Ministers of the USSR (no. 16 of 11.01.65), the introduction of International Nomenclature was accompanied by work aimed at the standardization of scientific and technical terminology and notations used in technology, as well as in technical literature, regulatory documents, and industry.
In accordance with the state plan for standardization, SOI began the development of the draft State Standard "Oceanology. Terms and Definitions" in 1969. Although one section of this Standard, "Sea Ice", was developed at AARI at that time, this work was never completed.
In 1977, the Ice Terminology Committee of the International Association on Hydraulic Researches (IAHR) compiled a dictionary which contained 106 terms relating to the construction and operation of hydrotechnical structures under ice conditions in fresh-water areas. However, intense exploration of the shelves of the arctic seas occurring at that time brought up the question of expanding and developing the dictionary to also include terminology used in ice covered marine areas. As a result, this dictionary was also never published.
Understandably, the question of streamlining terminology has been a top priority in all stages of the development of ice science. However, no practical research has been carried out in this field. As a rule, terminology problems have been addressed in general research works such as monographs, manuals, and instructions. In this connection it should be noted that different authors often have quite different interpretations of similar terms. For instance, the interpretation of some terms such as relative ice area, state of the ice sheet, and ice conditions, often varies. In contrast to the terminology related to ice sheet state, which was included in World Ice Nomenclature published in 1974, terms which originated in the process of investigating ice properties and ice regimes, ice navigation, and the construction of hydrotechnical objects are scattered through the literature. For instance, ice forecasting terminology can be found in two manuals [29, 34].
At present, there does not exist a common glossary of the terminology associated with the scientific study of sea ice. Furthermore, in 1984 the "International Notations for Sea Ice Maps and Nomenclature of Sea Ice" was published, resulting in the effective annulment of the bulk of the prior USSR terminology. As a result, there is at present no Russian national system of terminology and classification of either fresh-water ice or sea ice.
During the last 15 to 20 years, in both Russia and abroad, a great number of investigations have been undertaken concerning the physical, mechanical, and chemical properties of ice. For instance, the scope of investigation of the ice regime of fresh-water bodies has been considerably expanded. Ice forecasts and ice regime monitoring are now often based on numerical methods of analysis and prediction, based on mathematical models of the various processes occurring in ice. The use of such models is impossible without an adequate classification of ice- related phenomena and processes. Rapid increases in the number of investigators have also increased the number of "individually created" concepts and terms which are not the result of new scientific achievements but many times are the result of insufficient understanding of the subject. At the same time, clear definitions of many important generic notions (for example, ice sheet, ice regime, ice conditions, etc.) still have to be proposed.
The present glossary of sea ice terminology is a first attempt to systemize in one- volume terms related to ice and its properties, to the properties of ice sheets, to ice forecasting, and to the scientific and operational support of ice navigation.
This first draft version of this glossary has been sent to a number of Departments of Rosgidromet and to other organizations involved in activities connected with sea ice. The authors received a large number of comments and proposals – most of which were taken into account when preparing the glossary for publication. In particular, the authors agreed with the suggestion that an alphabetic ordering of terms and notions be utilized. However, in some cases, the authors found it more logical to use hierarchical principles in establishing the order of headings, similar to that used in the Nomenclature of Sea Ice proposed by WMO.
The order of the terms in this dictionary was determined by the principles listed below:
As this glossary is not encyclopedic, the authors have used definitions as the main method for introducing terms. Extended definitions are only given in cases of very important concepts or when a more complete discussion is warranted.
In their work on the glossary the authors used a large number of reference books, regulations and instructions, and national and foreign literature on sea ice. Many of these reference sources are listed at the end of this document.
The authors wish to thank the following colleagues for their assistance: Doctor of Science (geography) A. Ya. Buzuev; cand. sci. (physics and mathematics) B. Ya. Gaitskhoki; Doctor of Science (geography) Yu. A. Gorbunov; cand. sci. (geography) V. D. Grishchenko; Doctor of Science (geography) V. V. Panov; cand.sci. (geography) V. I. Fedotov; cand. sci. (geography) I. E. Frolov; and cand. sci. (geography) N. V. Cherepanov.
We also wish to thank V. I. Shilnikov, K. M. Kumachev, V. D. Grishchenko and others who helped us in preparing photographs.
Naturally, this glossary, can not cover all the terms that exist in the field of sea ice science. The authors assume that some terms may be missing. We shall be grateful for any further suggestions regarding improvements, omissions, and errors. We look forward to hearing from users of this dictionary, whether or not they have words and definitions to add.
PREFACE TO THE 1998 ENGLISH EDITION
We have attempted to keep the English edition of this glossary as close to the Russian original as possible. Although the exact wording may not always be the same, we have also attempted to make our definitions consistent with the sea ice terms listed in the World Meteorological Organization’s "Sea Ice Nomenclature" [31, 46]. In the few cases where in our view there are differences between real-world usage and the more formal WMO definitions, we have noted these in our comments. There are also a number of cases where a direct translation of a Russian word or phrase into English is very different than the correct English translation. In that it is not uncommon to see the direct instead of the correct terms in documents prepared by non-specialists, we have dealt with this problem by providing the direct translation and then adding the correct English phrase in brackets in the associated text. We have also added a number of references from the English literature to the reference list to further assist the reader. A comparison with the original Russian edition of this glossary will also show that there have been major changes in the photographs used as illustrative material. This was the result of the fact that many of the original prints were no longer available. Fortunately we have been able to fill this void through the generosity of several individuals and organizations. Full photo credits are given after the bibliography.
We regret that we did not have the pleasure of the assistance of Captain of the First Rank Kazanskii in preparing this translation as he died in 1994. We are saddened to report that at this time when the final editing of the Glossary was underway, Dr. Vladislav Gavrilo died of a heart attack. Without his enthusiasm, knowledge, and hard work, this translation could never have been completed.
SUGGESTIONS ON THE USE OF THIS GLOSSARY
In preparing this glossary we have had to make a number of decisions concerning the arrangement of the expressions discussed here. The result is a combination of an alphabetical and hierarchical arrangement. As will immediately become obvious on the following page, the main arrangement of terms is alphabetical. We have also used alphabetical sequences in the listing of many of the subsets of the main terms. This is invariably true when these terms do not fall into some natural sequence. When they do, such as objects having a natural size or age sequence, we have listed them according to that sequence. To avoid the endless repetition of definitions, we have not repeated many of the definitions that naturally occur as part of a subset of other definitions. However, in the index we have listed all the terms that have been referred to in the text regardless of their location.
We suggest that persons searching for a particular definition should start the search in the index and then proceed to the particular page listed. If that approach does not immediately produce the desired term, you should look for your term attached to the word ice; for example, ice crystals, ice draft, ice forecasting, ice keel, etc. We also think that the reader will find it interesting to browse through the book discovering the surprisingly diverse maze of terminology that has developed in the rather specialized field of sea ice studies. Happy hunting and good luck.